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  Mutilla Europæa emits a stridulating noise; and according to Goureau483 both sexes have this power. He attributes the sound to the friction of the third and preceding abdominal segments; and I find that these surfaces are marked with very fine concentric ridges, but so is the projecting thoracic collar, on which the head articulates; and this collar, when scratched with the point of a needle, emits the proper sound. It is rather surprising that both sexes should have the power of stridulating, as the male is winged and the female wingless. It is notorious that Bees express certain emotions, as of anger, by the tone of their humming, as do some dipterous insects; but I have not referred to these sounds, as they are not known to be in any way connected with the act of courtship.

  Order, Coleoptera (Beetles).—Many beetles are coloured so as to resemble the surfaces which they 367habitually frequent. Other species are ornamented with gorgeous metallic tints,—for instance, many Carabidæ, which live on the ground and have the power of defending themselves by an intensely acrid secretion,—the splendid diamond-beetles which are protected by an extremely hard covering,—many species of Chrysomela, such as C. cerealis, a large species beautifully striped with various colours, and in Britain confined to the bare summit of Snowdon,—and a host of other species. These splendid colours, which are often arranged in stripes, spots, crosses and other elegant patterns, can hardly be beneficial, as a protection, except in the case of some flower-feeding species; and we cannot believe that they are purposeless. Hence the suspicion arises, that they serve as a sexual attraction; but we have no evidence on this head, for the sexes rarely differ in colour. Blind beetles, which cannot of course behold each other’s beauty, never exhibit, as I hear from Mr. Waterhouse, jun., bright colours, though they often have polished coats: but the explanation of their obscurity may be that blind insects inhabit caves and other obscure stations.

  Some Longicorns, however, especially certain Prionidæ, offer an exception to the common rule that the sexes of beetles do not differ in colour. Most of these insects are large and splendidly coloured. The males in the genus Pyrodes,484 as I saw in Mr. Bates’ collection, are 368generally redder but rather duller than the females, the latter being coloured of a more or less splendid golden green. On the other hand, in one species the male is golden-green, the female being richly tinted with red and purple. In the genus Esmeralda the sexes differ so greatly in colour that they have been ranked as distinct species: in one species both are of a beautiful shining green, but the male has a red thorax. On the whole, as far as I could judge, the females of those Prionidæ, in which the sexes differ, are coloured more richly than the males; and this does not accord with the common rule in regard to colour when acquired through sexual selection.

  Fig. 15. Chalcosoma atlas. Upper figure, male (reduced); lower figure, female (nat. size).

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  Fig. 16. Copris isidis. (Left-hand figures, males.)

  Fig. 17. Phanæus faunus.

  Fig. 18. Dipelicus cantori.

  Fig. 19. Onthophagus rangifer, enlarged.

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  A most remarkable distinction between the sexes of many beetles is presented by the great horns which rise from the head, thorax, or clypeus of the males; and in some few cases from the under surface of the body. These horns, in the great family of the Lamellicorns, resemble those of various quadrupeds, such as stags, rhinoceroses, &c., and are wonderful both from their size and diversified shapes. Instead of describing them, I have given figures of the males and females of some of the more remarkable forms. (Figs. 15 to 19.) The females generally exhibit rudiments of the horns in the form of small knobs or ridges; but some are destitute of even a rudiment. On the other hand, the horns are nearly as well developed in the female as in the male of Phanæus lancifer; and only a little less well developed in the females of some other species of the same genus and of Copris. In the several subdivisions of the family, the differences in structure of the horns do not run parallel, as I am informed by Mr. Bates, with their more important and characteristic differences; thus within the same natural section of the genus Onthophagus, there are species which have either a single cephalic horn, or two distinct horns.

  In almost all cases, the horns are remarkable from their excessive variability; so that a graduated series can be formed, from the most highly developed males to others so degenerate that they can barely be distinguished from the females. Mr. Walsh485 found that in Phanæus carnifex the horns were thrice as long in some males as in others. Mr. Bates, after examining above a hundred males of Onthophagus rangifer (fig. 19), thought that he had at last discovered a species in 371which the horns did not vary; but further research proved the contrary.

  The extraordinary size of the horns, and their widely different structure in closely-allied forms, indicate that they have been formed for some important purpose; but their excessive variability in the males of the same species leads to the inference that this purpose cannot be of a definite nature. The horns do not show marks of friction, as if used for any ordinary work. Some authors suppose486 that as the males wander much more than the females, they require horns as a defence against their enemies; but in many cases the horns do not seem well adapted for defence, as they are not sharp. The most obvious conjecture is that they are used by the males for fighting together; but they have never been observed to fight; nor could Mr. Bates, after a careful examination of numerous species, find any sufficient evidence in their mutilated or broken condition of their having been thus used. If the males had been habitual fighters, their size would probably have been increased through sexual selection, so as to have exceeded that of the female; but Mr. Bates, after comparing the two sexes in above a hundred species of the Copridæ, does not find in well-developed individuals any marked difference in this respect. There is, moreover, one beetle, belonging to the same great division of the Lamellicorns, namely Lethrus, the males of which are known to fight, but they are not provided with horns, though their mandibles are much larger than those of the female.

  The conclusion, which best agrees with the fact of the horns having been so immensely yet not fixedly developed,—as shewn by their extreme variability in 372the same species and by their extreme diversity in closely-allied species—is that they have been acquired as ornaments. This view will at first appear extremely improbable; but we shall hereafter find with many animals, standing much higher in the scale, namely fishes, amphibians, reptiles and birds, that various kinds of crests, knobs, horns and combs have been developed apparently for this sole purpose.

  The males of Onitis furcifer (fig. 20) are furnished with singular projections on their anterior femora, and Fig. 20. Onitis furcifer, male, viewed from beneath. with a great fork or pair of horns on the lower surface of the thorax. This situation seems extremely ill adapted for the display of these projections, and they may be of some real service; but no use can at present be assigned to them. It is a highly remarkable fact, that although the males do not exhibit even a trace of horns on the upper surface of the body, yet in the females a rudiment of a single horn on the head (fig. 21, a), and of a crest (b) on the thorax, are plainly visible. That the slight thoracic crest in the female is a rudiment of a projection proper to the male, though entirely absent in the male of this particular species, is clear: for the female of Bubas bison (a form373 which comes next to Onitis) has a similar slight crest on the thorax, and the male has in the same situation a great projection. So again there can be no doubt that the little point (a) on the head of the female Onitis furcifer, as well of the females of two or three allied species, is a rudimentary representative of the cephalic horn, which is common to the males of so many lamellicorn beetles, as in Phanæus, fig. 17. The males indeed of some unnamed beetles in the British Museum, which are believed actually to belong to the genus Onitis, are furnished with a similar horn. The remarkable nature of this case will be best perceived by an illustration: the Ruminant quadrupeds run parallel with the lamellicorn beetles, in some females possessing horns as large as those
of the male, in others having them much smaller, or existing as mere rudiments (though this is as rare with ruminants as it is common with Lamellicorns), or in having none at all. Now if a new species of deer or sheep were discovered with the female bearing distinct rudiments of horns, whilst the head of the male was absolutely smooth, we should have a case like that of Onitis furcifer.

  Fig. 21. Left-hand figure, male of Onitis furcifer, viewed laterally. Right-hand figure, female. a. Rudiment of cephalic horn. b. Trace of thoracic horn or crest.

  In this case the old belief of rudiments having been created to complete the scheme of nature is so far from holding good, that all ordinary rules are completely broken through. The view which seems the most probable is that some early progenitor of Onitis acquired, like other Lamellicorns, horns on the head and thorax, and then transferred them, in a rudimentary condition, as with so many existing species, to the female, by whom they have ever since been retained. The subsequent loss of the horns by the male may have resulted through the principle of compensation from the development of the projections on the lower surface, whilst the female has not been thus affected, as she is not furnished with374 these projections, and consequently has retained the rudiments of the horns on the upper surface. Although this view is supported by the case of Bledius immediately to be given, yet the projections on the lower surface differ greatly in structure and development in the males of the several species of Onitis, and are even rudimentary in some; nevertheless the upper surface in all these species is quite destitute of horns. As secondary sexual characters are so eminently variable, it is possible that the projections on the lower surface may have been first acquired by some progenitor of Onitis and produced their effect through compensation, and then have been in certain cases almost completely lost.

  Fig. 22. Bledius taurus, magnified. Left-hand figure, male; right-hand figure, female.

  All the cases hitherto given refer to the Lamellicorns, but the males of some few other beetles, belonging to two widely distinct groups, namely, the Curculionidæ and Staphylinidæ, are furnished with horns,—in the former on the lower surface of the body,487 in the latter on the upper surface of the head and thorax. In the Staphylinidæ the horns of the males in the same species are extraordinarily variable, just as we have seen with the Lamellicorns. In Siagonium we have a case of dimorphism, for the males can be divided into two sets, differing greatly in the size of their bodies, and in the development of their horns, without any intermediate gradations. In a species of Bledius (fig. 22), also belonging to the Staphylinidæ, male specimens can be found in the same locality, as 375 Professor Westwood states, “in which the central horn of the thorax is very large, but the horns of the head quite rudimental; and others, in which the thoracic horn is much shorter, whilst the protuberances on the head are long.”488 Here, then, we apparently have an instance of compensation of growth, which throws light on the curious case just given of the loss of the upper horns by the males of Onitis furcifer.

  Law of Battle.—Some male beetles, which seem ill fitted for fighting, nevertheless engage in conflicts for the possession of the females. Mr. Wallace489 saw two males of Leptorhynchus angustatus, a linear beetle with a much elongated rostrum, “fighting for a female, who stood close by busy at her boring. They pushed at each other with their rostra, and clawed and thumped, apparently in the greatest rage.” The smaller male, however, “soon ran away, acknowledging himself vanquished.” In some few cases the males are well adapted for fighting, by possessing great toothed mandibles, much larger than those of the females. This is the case with the common stag-beetle (Lucanus cervus), the males of which emerge from the pupal state about a week before the other sex, so that several may often be seen pursuing the same female. At this period they engage in fierce conflicts. When Mr. A. H. Davis490 enclosed two males with one female in a box, the larger male severely pinched the smaller one, until he resigned his pretensions. A friend informs me 376that when a boy he often put the males together to see them fight, and he noticed that they were much bolder and fiercer than the females, as is well known to be the case with the higher animals. The males would seize hold of his finger, if held in front, but not so the females. With many of the Lucanidæ, as well as with the above-mentioned Leptorhynchus, the males are larger and more powerful insects than the females. The two sexes of Lethrus cephalotes (one of the Lamellicorns) inhabit the same burrow; and the male has larger mandibles than the female. If, during the breeding-season, a strange male attempts to enter the burrow, he is attacked; the female does not remain passive, but closes the mouth of the burrow, and encourages her mate by continually pushing him on from behind. The action does not cease until the aggressor is killed or runs away.491 The two sexes of another lamellicorn beetle, the Ateuchus cicatricosus live in pairs, and seem much attached to each other; the male excites the female to roll the balls of dung in which the ova are deposited; and if she is removed, he becomes much agitated. If the male is removed, the female ceases all work, and as M. Brulerie492 believes, would remain on the spot until she died.

  The great mandibles of the male Lucanidæ are extremely variable both in size and structure, and in this respect resemble the horns on the head and thorax of many male Lamellicorns and Staphylinidæ. A perfect series can be formed from the best-provided to the worst-provided or degenerate males. Although the mandibles of the common stag-beetle, and probably of 377many other species, are used as efficient weapons for fighting, it is doubtful whether their great size can Fig. 23. Chiasognathus grantii, reduced. Upper figure, male; lower figure, female. thus be accounted for. We have seen that with the Lucanus elaphus of N. America they are used for seizing the female. As they are so conspicuous and so elegantly branched, the suspicion has sometimes crossed my mind that they may be serviceable to the males as an ornament, in the same manner as the horns on the head and thorax of the various above described species. The male Chiasognathus grantii of S. Chile—a splendid beetle belonging to the same family—has enormously-developed mandibles (fig. 23); he is bold and pugnacious; when threatened on any side he faces round, opening his great jaws, and at the same time stridulating loudly; but the mandibles were not strong enough to pinch my finger so as to cause actual pain.

  Sexual selection, which implies the possession of considerable perceptive powers and of strong passions, seems to have been more effective with the Lamellicorns than with any other family of the Coleoptera or beetles. With some species the males are provided with weapons for fighting; some live in pairs and show mutual affection;378 many have the power of stridulating when excited; many are furnished with the most extraordinary horns, apparently for the sake of ornament; some which are diurnal in their habits are gorgeously coloured; and, lastly, several of the largest beetles in the world belong to this family, which was placed by Linnæus and Fabricius at the head of the Order of the Coleoptera.493

  Stridulating organs.—Beetles belonging to many and widely distinct families possess these organs. The sound can sometimes be heard at the distance of several feet or even yards,494 but is not comparable with that produced by the Orthoptera. The part which may be called the rasp generally consists of a narrow slightly-raised surface, crossed by very fine, parallel ribs, sometimes so fine as to cause iridescent colours, and having a very elegant appearance under the microscope. In some cases, for instance, with Typhæus, it could be plainly seen that extremely minute, bristly, scale-like prominences, which cover the whole surrounding surface in approximately parallel lines, give rise to the ribs of the rasp by becoming confluent and straight, and at the same time more prominent and smooth. A hard ridge on any adjoining part of the body, which in some cases is specially modified for the purpose, serves as the scraper for the rasp. The scraper is rapidly moved across the rasp, or conversely the rasp across the scraper.

  Fig. 24. Necrophorus (from Landois). r. The two rasps. Left-hand figure, part of the rasp highly magnified.

  These organs are situated in widely different positions. In the carrion-beet
les (Necrophorus) two parallel rasps (r, fig. 24) stand on the dorsal surface of the fifth abdominal segment, each rasp being crossed, as described by Landois,495 by from 126 to 140 fine ribs. These 379ribs are scraped by the posterior margins of the elytra, a small portion of which projects beyond the general outline. In many Crioceridæ, and in Clythra 4-punctata (one of the Chrysomelidæ), and in some Tenebrionidæ, &c.,496 the rasp is seated on the dorsal apex of the abdomen, on the pygidium or pro-pygidium, and is scraped as above by the elytra. In Heterocerus, which belongs to another family, the rasps are placed on the sides of the first abdominal segment, and are scraped by ridges on the femora.497 In certain Curculionidæ and Carabidæ,498 the parts are completely reversed in position, 380for the rasps are seated on the inferior surface of the elytra, near their apices, or along their outer margins, and the edges of the abdominal segments serve as the scrapers. In Pelobius hermanni (one of Dytiscidæ or water-beetles) a strong ridge runs parallel and near to the sutural margin of the elytra, and is crossed by ribs, coarse in the middle part, but becoming gradually finer at both ends, especially at the upper end; when this insect is held under water or in the air, a stridulating noise is produced by scraping the extreme horny margin of the abdomen against the rasp. In a great number of long-horned beetles (Longicornia) the organs are altogether differently situated, the rasp being on the meso-thorax, which is rubbed against the pro-thorax; Landois counted 238 very fine ribs on the rasp of Cerambyx heros.